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By Kristen Coppock Crossley, MA Canine whipworm infection occurs after a dog has eaten an egg left in the soil or other contaminated environments. Although some infected canines may not show signs, diarrhea or soft stool with blood or mucus, as well as lethargy, weight loss, and dehydration, may be seen in other infected dogs.1
Susan E. Little, DVM, PhD, DACVM, the Krull-Ewing professor of parasitology at the Center for Veterinary Health Sciences at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, identified parasites that commonly infect canines and expressed a need for comprehensive control strategies to address them, during an educational session at the 2025 Veterinary Meeting & Expo, hosted by the North American Veterinary Community, in Orlando, Florida. The session included discussion on the prevalence, diagnosing, and concerns related to canine whipworm.2
“They can survive freezing. They can survive in the dirt for years, though they last 6-7 years or longer, still remain effective,” said Little.
In 2024, 0.4% of more than 13.7 million dogs—or 1 in [250]—tested positive for whipworm in the United States. A Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) map shows incidence of infection is higher in the US southeast with Kentucky and West Virginia having the highest prevalence.2,3
According to Little, older literature has shown that whipworm larvae require warmer temperatures and high humidity environmental conditions to develop. “It sort of explains, a little bit, some of the whipworm patterns that we've seen over the years.”
Citing a study she coauthored in 2020, Little said 300 dog parks across the US were used to collect fecal samples that were tested for whipworm. Like the CAPC map, prevalence was shown to be higher in dog parks in the southeastern US with 2% to 3% of tested canines reported positive for infection.4
“Whipworms are tricky to diagnose compared to hookworms and roundworms. They're way easier to diagnose than tape worms," said Little.
Little said that whipworms in dogs can cause blood loss, fluid loss, and damage to the gastrointestinal tract. Because they’re internal, they are seen by humans as eggs and in wood form.
“[Whipworm] eggs are one of the veterinary students’ favorite eggs to identify, because they're so clear and standard and readily recognized. We can find them in practice, but we also overlook a lot of them, and it depends on how you're doing fecal flotation and what solution is being used that influences sensitivity of detection,” said Little.
Passive fecal flotation is “very insensitive,” Little said. She recommends active centrifugal fecal flotation, ideally with a higher-gravity solution, such as a sugar solution.
“Now we have antigen tests as well, and that's why we're learning more that lower prevalence in the western US is real. The lower prevalence in pet dogs is real because they're also coming up antigen negative,” said Little.
PCR testing is also available for canine whipworms. However, Little said, the sensitivity of these tests compared to other diagnostic methods is unknown.
Whipworms are hardy, and persist in the environment once contamination has occurred.1,2 “[Once] you get whipworms in your backyard, you got whipworms, and so that's the reason we focus so hard on trying to make sure dogs don't have whipworms, because of that persistent contamination,” Little said.
Whipworm eggs must be in an environment for 9-12 days after an infected dog passes them to become larvae and infective to another dog. After being consumed by a dog, whipworm larvae can take up to 90 days to mature to egg-producing adulthood.1
Lifestyle plays a role in a dog’s risk of whipworm infection. “Did they go to the dog park? Were they a shelter dog, a rescue dog, a street dog, rehomed, she asked. “With whipworms, we're moving toward the recommendation on risk assessment, where we look at age. Younger dogs are more likely to be infected with parasites, in general.”
Canine whipworm can cause gastrointestinal damage, according to Little, but infection is preventable and treatable, and there is little resistance to drug therapies.2 Monthly parasite preventives are recommended as well as immediate removal of canine feces to prevent environmental contamination. Pet owners should also use caution when visiting dog parks and other locations where canines frequent.1
Additionally, this parasite is not considered zoonotic. “There's not as much concern about having constant, recurrent infection,” said Little.
However, vigilance is key to preventing canine whipworm infection and recurrence. “Once they're in the backyard, you can get rid of them. You just have to keep up the antigenic pressure. It's going to be a lot of work,” she said.
By Abi Bautista Alejandre According to recent updates to the “Guidelines for the diagnosis and antimicrobial therapy of canine superficial bacterial folliculitis,” topical therapy is now the first line treatment of choice for superficial bacterial folliculitis, or pyoderma.1,2 As Jason B. Pieper, DVM, MS, DACVD, assistant professor at Iowa State University explained in his lecture at the 2025 Veterinary Meeting & Expo (VMX) in Orlando, Florida, the first step in the treatment of pyoderma should be topical therapy.1
Pyoderma is a bacterial infection of the skin. It is divided based on the how deep the infection is in the skin and consists of surface, superficial, and deep pyoderma, with surface pyoderma being the most common form of the infection.1
"Now one thing I will say…is superficial pyoderma does involve the hair follicles because again, the epidermis kind of goes down and surrounds….the hair shaft…with the hair follicle, so even infections down in that area are still considered a superficial pyoderma,” explained Pieper during his session.1
When thinking about topical therapy for a pyoderma case, it is important to consider both the active ingredient that will be used and what the best formulation for the patient’s individual case is; as well as the frequency of the topical application, how labor intensive the therapy is, and what the realistic client compliance will be.1
The antiseptic chlorhexidine is the most widely available antimicrobial, according to Pieper. It is effective against viruses, bacteria, and fungi and can work synergistically with other ingredients like miconazole. Addressing concerns over antimicrobial resistance to this ingredient, Pieper explained that there has been no documented clinical resistance to this antiseptic to date.
He also noted that higher concentrations of chlorhexidine are not always better than lower concentrations, citing a 2013 study on chlorhexidine shampoos in 0.8, 2, 3, and 4% concentrations that found larger zones of bacterial growth inhibition in shampoos with 2 and 3% chlorhexidine compared to the shampoos containing 0.8 and 4% chlorhexidine.1,3
This ingredient has antibacterial, keratolytic, degreasing, and follicular flushing activity. “People use this for acne, so again, cleaning out the hair follicles and kind of breaking up the oils, stuff like that,” said Pieper.
However, benzoyl peroxide can cause excessive drying of the skin, which lead to increased pruritus. It could also potentially bleach fabrics like bedding. Additionally, the ingredient has a low number of formulations.
Sodium hypochlorite is similar to chlorhexidine in its effectiveness against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. “Historically people have talked about in human medicine using something called a Dakin’s solution. And what they would do is that they would go ahead and take bleach, dilute with water, put some baking soda in there, boil it to neutralize it, things like that, and…they would use it for children and do baths with some really resistant infections,” said Pieper. However, as Pieper explained, its drying effect is the concern.
“There is one study out there with just bleach and water, which is kind of what we think of with sodium hypochlorite, that did not show it to be drying when they used it, so that’s a nice benefit with this compared to say, benzoyl peroxide,” he added. There is a shampoo with salicylic acid (Command) that is available, said Pieper. Studies have shown that this shampoo is effective, according to his session.
This ingredient is widely used for decontamination. It works well against gram-positive bacteria, some gram-negative bacteria, and dermatophytes, according to Pieper. He explained that there is a veterinary shampoo available with this ingredient in a one-gallon container that could be an effective option for decontamination.
Considering the formulation that will be used for the patient is crucial, as it is important to consider which formulation will be best for the patient, location of the infection, formulation efficacy, and compliance. “There’s nothing worse than giving [patients] a product and they don’t use it at all—it’s not going to work at all,” said Pieper.
One of the oldest formulations, shampoo is labor intensive but is effective for generalized disease. As Pieper explained, shampoos have the ability to reach lesions that may have not been noticed. For shampoos, a contact time of 10 minutes is recommended, explained Pieper.
Although sprays can be easily applied, application can also be difficult with patients that have a thick haircoat. Moreover, compliance can be an issue with this type of formulation, as many cats and dogs are fearful of sprays.
“A lot of studies have shown that you’re going to need to apply that 1-2 times a day,” said Pieper, explaining that patients will need to be distracted after application to prevent treatment removal. Although relatively labor-intensive, sprays are useful for generalized lesions if wide areas are covered, as well as for small areas.
This formulation is available in a range of combination medications, including steroids. “I typically think of them as your triple threat-type product,” said Pieper, explaining that ear medication ointments can work really well.
Ointments also work well for localized lesions. This formulation will also be applied 1-2 times a day.
Wipes are a newer type of formulation. Applied 1-2 a day, these work best for localized lesions, especially in areas that are difficult to reach, according to Pieper. “I like them for paws, especially kind of those bulldog paws to get that kind of cheesy stuff in between,” he said. “It works really well to…get in there, wipe it out, and physically remove that debris.” He noted that the liquid in the wipes will also leave residual product in the area.
This formulation is the newest formulation, explained Pieper. Mousse is best for multifocal, as well as generalized lesions, depending on the dog, their coat length, thickness, affected area, etc. It is applied a few times a week, depending on the patient. According to Pieper, mousse is a “great alternative to bath.” However, some products can irritate ulcerated lesions.
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